Imagined Community, Orientalism - Free Essay Example

Imagined community, Orientalism and Moral Panic Concepts, underlying Post-9/11 US Presidential Speeches Introduction George W. Bush’s administration and American mass media mounted a sustained project in post-9/11 era to ‘save’ US intact identity and delegitimize critical thoughts about Middle East, Islam and Arabs. This project was implemented by inducing a picture of ‘Self’ or ‘White’ as of Americans versus ‘Others’ as of Arabs and Muslims. In the project, American society is surrounded by ‘borders’ being threatened by ‘Others’. Therefore, perceived threat and heightened security alerts abound in daily media coverage and also political speeches of G. W. Bush and his supporters in this post-9/11 era. Many theoretical frameworks have been applied to investigate this project. Developed by Said (1978), Orientalism is a theory which delineates the categories of rational and superior ‘Westâ€⠄¢ versus aberrant and inferior ‘Orient’. The theory was used by researchers to interpret the events of post-9/11 era. Applying the Orientalism theory, Nayak (2006) argues that the ‘Self’/’Other’ dialectic is due to the fear of ‘Self’ from ‘Others’ and also the desperate need of ‘Self’ US to a coded Islamic fundamentalism of threatening ‘Others’. There is also a correlation between the Orientalism aspect of ‘Self’ or ‘West’ as a nation and the theory of ‘Imagined communities’, proposed by Anderson (1996). According to Anderson, nations are imagined communities, where ‘the members of even the smallest nations will never know most of their fellow-members, meet them, or even hear of them’. Another theoretical framework, applied by researchers, is called moral panic theory: a media-induced so-called perceived threat. Brayton (2006) analyse s the American mass media coverage of detention of an ‘American-Taliban’ citizen, who was introduced to North America on December 1, 2001. Brayton argues how moral panic theory was used to sketch racialized physical and social boundaries between ‘Whiteness’ and ‘Others’, and questions the entities of these boundaries. (Rothe et al. 2004) examine the social effects of social construction of moral panic of terrorism. They offer analyses of media’s depiction of acts of terrorism and also state’s vested interest in social construction of moral panic, leading to increased level of fear. Although post-9/11 era has been vastly investigated by scholars using the theoretical frameworks, there is a need to investigate what specific political literature was used by Bush in his post-9/11 speeches to portray American Society as ‘Self’ or ‘civilized nation’ versus ‘Others’ or ‘terrorists’ i n order to justify the implementation of the racial project of ‘Saving’ US intact identity. The objective of this paper is to explore three main speeches of G. W. Bush following 9/11: Address to the Nation September 11th 2001, United Nation General Assembly on November 11th 2001 and State of Union January 29th 2002. Applying the above mentioned theoretical frameworks of Orientalism-imagined communities and Moral panic, it is intended to analyze these speeches and argue their contribution to the emergence of the imagined boundaries between ‘Self’ and ‘Others’. Orientalism and Imagined Communities theories in Bush’s speeches As mentioned earlier, there is a correlation between the theories of Imagined Communities and Orientalism. According to Anderson (1996), a nation is ‘an imagined political community [that is] imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign’. Members of this community will not meet their fellow-memb ers, ‘yet in the minds of each, lives the image of their communion’. As Anderson puts it, regardless of inequalities among members, they share common interests or identity as a part of a nation through ‘deep, horizontal comradeship’ within ‘finite, if elastic boundaries, beyond which lie other nations’. Although the theory is a fundamental basis for anthropological discussions, it is challenged by other researchers. Chavez (1994) argues the case of immigrants who may belong to multiple communities at the once, while not be readily imagined to be a part of the new community by those already living there. The imagined communities theory of Anderson would contribute us to discuss the application of Orientalism in post-9/11 era. According to Said (1979), Orientalism is a â€Å"style of thought† predicated upon the distinction between the ‘West’ (the Occident) and the ‘East’ (the Orient). He argues that ‘ Orientalism is fundamentally a political doctrine willed over the Orient because the Orient was weaker than the West’, and it’s a ‘misrepresentation of some Oriental essence’. As he believes, this misinterpretation is deliberately applied ‘according to a tendency, in a specific historical, intellectual, and even economic setting’. As Nayak (2006) argues, the ‘Self’/’Others’ representation of American/Arab world by Bush Administration in the specific historical era of post-9/11 follows the theory of Orientalism. Applying the concept of imagined communities, I also argue that the American ‘Self’ representation of ‘West’ in that era, is the results of creating an imagined community, within which beliefs about belonging and national identity were reconstructed around race. US presidential speeches coupled with mass media coverage, implemented the project of ‘Saving’ US intact sta te identity in post-9/11 era. These speeches have been analyzed by many researchers in order to find clues of their underlying theories. Throughout his speech in United Nation General Assembly on November 11 2001, Bush tries to sketch an imagined community of American people and their allies as ‘civilization’ or ‘civilized world’. He frames the sketch of this imagined community of ‘civilization’ through Orientalism concept, where the superior ‘civilized world’ is being threatened by ‘enemies’. As he puts it, this ‘Civilization’ will be defended by ‘We’ who are waging a war to save it. Therefore, the two actors are the traditional components of ‘us’ and ‘them’, as can be deduced from the following statements by him: Every civilized nation here today is resolved to keep the most basic commitment of civilization: We will defend ourselves and our future against terr or and lawless violence (Bush, 11 November 2001). As stated earlier, the members of an imagined community must share common interests. Interestingly, Bush implies that ’universally accepted standards of humanity’ and ’war on terror’ are two common interests of members of this ‘civilized world’: The civilized world is now responding. We act to defend ourselves and deliver our children from a future of fear. We choose the dignity of life over a culture of death. We choose lawful change and civil disagreement over coercion, subversion and chaos. These commitments -hope and order, law and life- unite people across cultures and continents (Bush, 11 November 2001). Orientalism and imagined communities concepts are also embodied in Bush’s State of Union speech in 2002, where he again uses the term ‘Civilized world’ at the beginning of his speech: The civilized world faces unprecedented danger. Yet, the state of Union has ne ver been stronger (Bush, 29 January 2002). Interestingly, while he is highlighting the common interests of this imagined community as ‘justice’ and peace, his statement simultaneously follows the property of Orientalism theory, in which the rational and superior ‘us’ is facing the inferior and aberrant ‘them’: Our nation will continue to be steadfast and patient and persistent in the pursuit of two great objectives. First, we will shut down terrorist camps, disrupt terrorist plans, and bring terrorists to justice. And second we must prevent the terrorists and regimes who seek chemical, biological weapons from threatening United States and the world (Bush, 29 January 2002). Aside from Orientalism and imagined communities theories that were framed by using ‘us’/’them’ or ‘civilized world’/’terrorist’ dialectics, the theoretical framework of moral panic could also be used to analyze post-9/1 1 speeches of Bush. Moral Panic theoretical framework Following 9/11, the American public has been inundated with perceived threats and heightened security alerts by political speeches and media coverage, resulting in what is called moral panic. The concept of moral panic was originally developed by Cohen (1972) as a media-induced exaggeration or distortion of some perceived threat or deviant activity. As he puts it, moral panic happens when a ‘condition, episode, person or group of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interests’. According to Brayton (2006), three actors need to exist for a moral panic to take hold. First, individuals who are responsible for deviant or criminal behaviour and are threatening the social order should be constructed as ‘folk devils’. Second, ambiguously defined terms such as ‘rap’, ‘rave’ or ‘enemies’ should be deployed. As the third actor, Brayton me ntions the term ‘moral entrepreneur’, originally introduced by (Becker 1966) as those such as politicians, media and rule enforcers who start the panic when they fear a threat. The atrocious nature of 9/11 attack provided an excellent opportunities for mass media coverage and also the speeches of politicians to call it a threat. In his immediate speech right after the 9/11 attack, Bush declares: Today, our fellow citizens, our way of life, our very freedom came under attack in a series of deliberate and deadly terrorist acts. ] Terrorist attacks can shake the foundations of our biggest buildings, but they cannot touch the foundation of America. [ ] America has stood down enemies before, and we will do so this time (Bush, 11 September, 2001). Clearly, Bush, as a ‘moral entrepreneur’, applies the ambiguous terms of ‘terrorists’ or ‘enemies’ and introduces them as the actors or ‘folk devils’, responsible for this catastr ophe of 9/11. However, he doesn’t break down specifically who the ‘enemies’ are and where they are located exactly. In order to implement the project of ‘saving’ US intact identity, throughout his speech, he repeatedly refers of the ‘America/’terrorists’ as a different version of ‘Self’/’Other’ dialectic. According to Rothe (2002), ‘A call to war and legislative responses’ is the most significant part of this created moral panic. He refers to role of mass media, another member of ‘moral entrepreneur’ group, and their headlines such as ‘War at Home’ (The Dallas Morning News 9/11/2001) and ‘ITS WAR’ (Daily News, 9/11/2001), coupled with the presidential speeches to justify the need for the upcoming global war. Yet, the theory of moral panic still applies to another speech by Bush. In Bush’s State of Union speech on January 2002, he sticks to the previously started scenario of moral panic by reintroducing the existing threat to the American society when he is addressing American public and Congress: As we gather here, our nation is at war, our economy is in recession, and the civilized world faces unprecedented danger (Bush, 29 January, 2002). He reminds the intensity of threat to ensure that the large proportion of US public accepts this moral panic unquestioningly: What we have found in Afghanistan confirms that far from ending there, our war against terror is only beginning. [ ] Thousands of dangerous killers, schooled in the methods of murder, often supported by outlaw regimes are now spread throughout the world like tickling bombs, set to go off without warning. (Bush, 29 January, 2002). He is also trying to justify his intention of global war against ‘enemies’: These enemies view the entire world as a battlefield, and we must pursue them wherever they are (Bush, 29 January, 2002). Apparently, the scenario of generating an exaggerated and induced public fear of terrorism in terms of moral panic theory and also the application of ambiguous terms of ‘our nation’ versus ‘enemies’ contributed to implement the project of ‘saving’ US intact identity in post-9/11 era. Conclusion: The catastrophe of 9/11 attacks to world trade centers in New York provided American politicians and mass media with a cause to implement the project of ‘saving’ the US intact identity. In the project, the ‘Self’/’Other’ dialectic is numerously applied in different formats to discriminate between ‘West’ or ‘Americans’ and ‘Others’. US presidential speeches played a key role in biasing mindsets of American public in regard to the events of post-9/11 era. The objective of this paper was to analyze three significant US presidential speeches through applying the theoretical frameworks of ima gined communities, Orientalism and moral panic. I argued how the application of some key words such as ‘civilized nation’ or ‘America’ by Bush in his speeches represented the imagined community of American population, united on ‘war on terror’. In the framework of Orientalism, I pointed out how his statements about his war policy could fit into the Orientalism theory framework, where superior ‘west’ is facing inferior ‘orient’. Eventually, I investigated the literature used by Bush to intensify and induce the public fear of terror in terms of a moral panic. Although I focused on only three speeches of G. W. Bush, providing more concrete proofs on the underlying facts of his speeches and better understanding them need more research on his other speeches and statements. Moreover, in order to investigate the reapplication of such theoretical frameworks on social and political events other than those of 9/11, it†™s necessary to compare Bush’s literature and his policies with those of new US president B. Obama.

Communication Is Necessary For Society And Culture

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The Effects Of Drinking On Underage Drinking - 3458 Words

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Voting Essay Example For Students

Voting Essay Voting Essay Are you a registered voter? You might expect a high rate of voting in the United States. A lot of people women, African Americans, and the poor fought for the right to vote; certainly their descendents would want to exercise their right to vote. I want to discuss with you today the importance of voting. There are three important aspects of voting. The first aspect is the group of people that fail to vote, the second is why there is such a low turnout, and finally is the voters attitude. Voting should be a sacred right held by each American citizen. In fact, the voting turnout in the United States is remarkably low. A few years ago, over 100 countries were ranked on turnout; Americans were ranked twelfth from the bottom. Suffrage in the United States has been a long battle to extend the right to vote from a small group of property-owning white males to virtually all persons over the age of eighteen. Therefore you would think all of us would go out and exercise our right to vote. It is a privilege that was fought for by our fore fathers. We could at least do our part to uphold the right to vote. The first aspect of voting is the group of people that fail to vote. According to Gergen in the 1990, U.S. News World Report, it is said that the two important nonvoting factors in nonvoting are education and income. The Education increases ones capacity for understanding complex and intangible subjects such as politics, as well as encouraging the ethic of civic responsibility. Income is a significant factor, a large number of Americans are poor, and even a larger number havent gone beyond a high school level. Therefore, income is a basic factor in the turnout and education only a reinforcing factor. According to the online Internet website in 1996, Voting Statistics- West Virginia Party Registration, the older we are the more likely we are to vote. Persons eighteen to twenty-four have a poor voting record. Also the longer we have lived in one area the more likely we are to vote. Based on general election figures in WV registration has dropped from 1,084,451 in 1976 to 970,745 in 1996. The second aspect of voting is why there is such a low turnout. According to OConner Sabato in the 1995, American government: Roots and reform, there is no getting around the fact that the United States has the lowest voter participation rate of any nation in the industrialized world, and it has declined somewhat. Only about half the eligible voters voted in the 1988 general presidential election and 55 percent in 1992, compared with 62 percent in 1960. In contrast, turnout for the British postwar elections has fluctuated between 72 and 84 percent. There are a number of reasons for low voting turnouts in the U.S. First, unlike the United States some nations have compulsory voting laws; not surprising they only enjoy voter turnout rates in excess of 95 percent. In some nations citizens pay a tax if they do not vote. Second, many nations automatically register all of their citizens to vote. In the United States, however, citizens must jump the extra hurdle of voter registration. Finally, the third aspect of voting is the voters attitude. According to Malchow in the 1998, Campaigns Elections, alienation afflicts some voters and others are just apathetic. Many citizens may be turned off by the quality of campaigns in a time when petty issues and personal mudslinging are more prevalent than ever. Again attitudes of voters can play a significant role of voter participation. Some ideas for increase in voter turnout are just not practical for example holding fewer elections sounds very appealing, but it is hard to do this without vanishing separation of powers that the Founders believed essential to protection of liberty. In conclusion the number of ways to increase voter turnout in the United States varies from person to person. This is an issue that needs to be solved. So, in recapping my points you should be aware if you fit into the group of people that fail to vote, you also must remember why the United States is ranked .

What is an Academic Paper Outline?

What is an Academic Paper Outline?The structure of an academic paper outline should reflect the structure of the course that you are writing. There are three levels of writing an outline. Level I is when you are just writing a thesis for your course. Level II is when you are writing an outline for a dissertation.Level II outlines are usually used for dissertations. An outline for a dissertation is a much larger and more detailed version of an outline for a particular course. The purpose of an outline for a dissertation is to show what is being studied and how it relates to a topic.There are a few different ways to put together an outline. Some people prefer to do it this way. However, it is easier and faster to use the actual structure of their course. Use the outline as a guide and not as the basis for the entire paper. This way, you can be sure that the structure of the paper matches the structure of the course.If you are writing a thesis, use a level-I outline. Level-I outlines ar e a bit more detailed than level-II outlines because they will contain all of the important information that will form the basis of your thesis. Use a level-I outline to help you format the chapter headings, bullet points, and table of contents. Use this outline to help you start the first drafts of the various parts of your paper.When you are using the level-II outlines for a dissertation, you will use a level-II outline. This is usually very long, and it should have all of the information that you will need in order to write the paper. It will also have a lot of the information that will be included in the manuscript that you will submit to your graduate school. However, it will not contain the major sections of the paper that you will be submitting.In level-III paper outlines, you will use a level-III outline. Levels-III and IV are usually longer than levels-II and I. They will have a lot of the important information that will be included in the dissertation or the journal articl es that you will be submitting. Because of this, you will want to be sure that you have enough information to follow in each section.As you can see, there are several different ways to write an academic paper outline. Do not worry about what the outline looks like; just use it as a reference point when you are writing your paper.Remember, the basic outline for your paper is just that - a basic outline. As long as you follow the outline exactly, you should have no trouble getting the job done.

Scholarship Essay Sample - Write Amazingly Good Essays With Free Essay Samples

Scholarship Essay Sample - Write Amazingly Good Essays With Free Essay SamplesA good source of high quality essay samples is the internet. But while searching for a free and amazing essay sample, don't think about such things like the validity of the essay writing companies, or how good the essay writing service is. All you need to focus on is the essay samples available on the internet that you are interested in, and with a little work, you will have an awesome chance of writing an essay in the shortest time possible.It is really simple: You just have to scan through the various choices for individual essay and choose the one that best fits your needs. After that, start writing it. After you have finished writing your essay, don't forget to send it in as a proof copy of your work.There are free software programs that can help you greatly in your writing process. For example, you can use Google Docs to write your essay. To make things even easier, you can also use Word or WordPerfect to make your work look professional. Also, you can also use word filters in Word to make your writing flawless.If you are using a cheap word processor, just be patient and do not worry about every little spelling error or confusion that will surely show in your work. As a matter of fact, a simple spelling error here and there is a small problem. And while doing research for free essay samples, you should look at writing guides that can guide you well in writing.Though free essay samples are not exactly on the same level as the software, but they are really helpful and that is what we are looking for when trying to find a high-quality essay. In fact, you should be looking for an essay writing service that can guarantee high quality, right? And we can't blame you, since these companies really earn money when you submit your essay.So, go to some college or university, and get the help of a tutor to do some research for you and find out which company offer free essay samples, and which ones charge. After that, compare their websites. It's really that simple.And if you are really confused about where to find free essay samples, just do a little research. Take your time and explore the internet, read some blogs and read some good quality writing guides, before jumping into the course of action to search for the essay samples you are looking for.

The Unexpected Truth About Opinion Writing Essay Samples

The Unexpected Truth About Opinion Writing Essay Samples There's a term group opinion that's employed in political science and psychology. Furthermore, you should cover the standpoint of an opposing side. What you have to do is to explore the topic. Always keep in mind that the vital element to have a superior writing is to realize the topic. Usually, the debut of your opinion constitutes of a couple of pages. You have to reveal your critical thinking abilities and make judgments about the subject as you analyze a short article, so you are able to develop clear opinion and conclusions. You've got to talk about BOTH of them and also provide your opinion. Commonly, an opinion isn't conclusive, and reflects someone's perception. The Bizarre Secret of Opinion Writing Essay Samples The ideas below function as a practical guide whenever you're writing your opinion essay. If writing is critical for you when you read, you can begin with an outline draft first where you mention the main points. Your writing has to be brief and concise. Drafting and planning in addition to researching should be done in order to have a simple writing. Logical proofs and dependable evidence will help to make your opinion even stronger. All the sources used have to get cited in a bibliography. Evidence in writing works the exact same way. Get any material you will need at no cost. Essay writing can be rather a challenge. Essay writing skills is a tough and time-consuming endeavor. Speaking about delicacy, it's a critical portion of any essay. IELTS opinion essays are extremely typical in the exam. A college essay can be quite difficult so there isn't any reason to feel awkward when seeking help. Aside from freshmen, there are specific college essays which will pose a great deal of problem for students. Plus, it's a means to ready the student for surprise quizzes. There are many persuasive essay examples college students are able to make use of online. The War Against Opinion Writing Essay Samples The best method is to deal with the readers directly. The center of the opinion piece is known as the body, composed of numerous paragraphs. Your style ought to be vivid and to present decent conversation. If you discover that other strategies aren't fit for you since you don't observe the total picture, try freewriting. Since you may see, there are lots of kinds of opinions, and lots of uses for them. It's merely essential to come up with environmental friendly wonts like recycling one's rubbish. Choose which ideas are perfect to be mentioned at the start, in the major p art and at the conclusion of your essay. You've got a guide and get ideas about what to do with your essay. Selecting the most suitable opinion essay rubric is the very first and the important step towards composing a fine bit of writing. Your writing style can make or break a terrific essay, which is the reason why it is important and even crucial to pick the perfect one. Besides 3 excellent definition essay examples, you'll locate extremely helpful methods and techniques for writing definition essays. You must compose a reflective essay that is simple to comprehend and you can do it by employing simple language. In general, the idea of emotional intelligence doesn't have a generally accepted definition. The definition of prewriting is as easy as it gets. For that reason, it's always recommended that you watch the documentary more often than once as a way to properly digest it and know what it is about. Before starting to compose your essay, you must gather information to back up your opinion. When you've determined the point of your essay, you are going to know what information has to be included and the way that it has to be presented.